modularity
Klingenberg CP 2010 Evolution and development of shape: integrating quantitative approaches. Nat Rev Genet 11:623-635.
- modularity is a general property of biological systems from molecular interactions to ecosystem function
- developmental modularity
- developmental modularity can be studied in morphological data by examining covariation of fluctuating asymmetry
- genetic modularity
- genetic modules are established by genetic covariation among traits
- this can be by pleiotropic effects of single loci or by genetic linkage between loci with effects on different parts
- covariation by pleiotropy can be due to direct developmental interaction and is therefore related to developmental modularity
- functional modularity
- interactions among parts that carry out organismal functions produce integration at the functional level
- biomechanical studies are needed to identify the interactions of the parts involved in functional modularity
- there is a connection between functional and genetic modularity through natural selection on functional performance, which moulds genetic variation within populations
- evolutionary modularity
- evolutionary modularity is the result of integrated evolution in distinct complexes of traits
- this integration of evolutionary changes may result from coordinated selection or from drift of genetically correlated traits
